Assessment for Learning techniques and the teaching of Science

discernment for Learning techniques and the tenet of acquirementThe purpose of this literature review is to look for recent literature and search conducted into Assessment for Learning (AfL) techniques and relating directly to the statement of experience as a subject in spite of appearance native tuition. This literature review is predominantly knowing to address the pastime research questionsWhich argon the most popularly utilize techniques of AfL in erudition?How is constructivism cerebrate to AfL in Science?Do former(a) subjects social occasion different AfL techniques than be used in knowledge?How common is the use of AfL in science?What is the impact of the use of AfL on pupils collar of scientific concepts?How does AfL impact on the coating of scientific skills at KS2?To research these questions, searches were do using Athens, searching the British Education Index (BEI) and The facts of lifeal Resources Information Center (ERIC) and Australian Education Index (AEI) research systems for articles and books relating to Assessment for Learning (AfL), formative assessment and science education which had been published since 1990. passel searches were also made through Primary Science Review, Science Education and School Science Review.Assessment for Learning (AfL) has been defined asthe butt of seeking and interpreting evidence for use by learners and their instructors to decide where learners are in their discipline, where they need to go and how best to get there.(Assessment Reform Group, 2002)The application of scientific skills at KS2 has been encapsulated by the Welsh Assembly Government in their new Welsh manakin documents throw ind in 2008 asLearners should be taught to meet their scientific skills, knowledge and understanding to applications of science in everyday life, including watercourse issues. They should be taught to recognise that scientific sentiments muckle be evaluated by actor of information gathered f rom observations and measurements.(Department for Children, Education, Lifelong Learning and Skills, 2008)Research into AfL (e.g. Black William, 1998 and Osborne Freyberg, 1985) has indicated that whilst it is win that all children benefit, it is not something added to teaching, but is integral to it (Harlen, 2006b, p. 176). In essence, AfL offernot be an extension to the pedagogical do work conversely it must be inherently encompassed deep d experience all teaching and scholarship practices.Harrison and Black (2004) bewilder the ideology bum Black and Williams make call up (1998) relating to AfL techniques and research directly to the subject of Science. Whilst predominantly focussed towards secondary science teaching, this work is still relevant to Primary Education. In this work, they develop the reasoning behind the advantages of the use of AfL at bottom Science slightons.Science provides the means by which learners put forward interact with the worldaround them and develop ideas about the phenomena they experience. So,when they attempt activities such as germinating seeds, their studies in science apparel them with elans to observe and question what is happening. Through experiments they can begin to work out and predict what might happen if conditions for the growing send offt change. To be able to learn science in this way, student needs attention in developing process skills to investigate, and communication skills to question and discuss findings. pliant assessment fits well into this learning scenario, since its purpose is for teachers to sift the rich data that arise in schoolroom discussion and activity, so that professional judgements can be made about the next steps in learning.(Black Harrison, 2004, p. 3)In her paper presented to the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, dismal (2009) highlights the slackly accepted techniques of AfL used within the schoolroom, which some articles are generally in agreement with, which arePeer and self-assessmentSharing learning goals and success criteriaEffective questioning and dialogueEffective teacher feedbackIn addition, the vastness to an effective classroom climate where children are encouraged to share their thoughts and unconstrained by the correction of wrong answers and the feeling that being wrong is a negative rather than the opportunity to share initial ideas, is essential.When researching methods into AfL and its introduction into the native classroom, history determines that the Plowden radical (1967) must be mentioned and discussed regarding her research and finding that showed, correspond to Bell (2008) in hindsight, amazing vision when it indicated that a successful education should includechild-centred approached to teachinga topic based curriculum baring learningThe core principles and values that directly relate to modern AfL techniques and philosophies command thatchildrens views are highly valued and actively sought outthat their learning engages them in a way that they can actively relate them to other aspects of their livesthe learning of skills across the curriculum enables children to be equipped to deal with a variety of situations rather than a single subject discipline.Critics of these ideals as Gillard (2004) describes are the writers of the Black Papers and their followers who criticised much of what the primary schools were doing and blamed the Plowden Report at least in part for what they saw as inapplicable trends during the 1970s and 1980s. Driver (1983), besides agrees with the underlying philosophy behind the Plowden plow findings, stating that It is, after all, the coherence as perceived by the pupil that matters in learning. Driver was also part of the Childrens Learning in Science figure (CLISP) which researched the area thatit is as important in teaching and curriculum phylogenesis to consider and understand childrens own ideas as it is to give a clear presentatio n of the conventional scientific theories(Driver, 1983)In their article, Lindsay and Clark (2001) describe ways in which AfL strategies (and specifically self- and peer-assessment) can be used to develop a constructivist classroom where children participate in creating and reflecting on their learning (p. 15). They also identify advantages to these techniques specifically develop scientific skills stating that children become much scientific in their enquiriesencourages children to be constantly involved in the scientific process and their role within it (p. 18).Black and Harrison (2004) also discuss the importance of discussion within the science classroom where students feel they can reveal authentic understanding and be encourageed to further understanding and feel that this is an essential ingredient to making formative assessment function in the classroom (p. 9).With regards to communion within the classroom, many writers maintain defined three different kinds Triadic dial ogue (three stages usually teacher initiation, pupil response and teacher evaluation), Authorative discourse (teacher conveying information to the pupils) and interactive or non-interactive talk. Chin (2006) draw outs that the triadic dialogue method is often perceived to have restrictive effects on pupil thinking (p. 1316), that ideas conveyed by the teacher using authorative discourse tend to be ignored and that interactive talk is described as dialogue. Generally in agreement are Asoko and Scott (2006) who draw a bead on that effective teaching involves all these approaches (p. 163).Hodgson (2010) describes the sharing of success criteria with the children in a Primary classroom as a key AfL strategy and is linked directly with feedback. Black and Harrison agree with this point in their summary of what they believe are the essential factors of effective feedbackshould motivate the child to discuss his or her thoughts with the teacher or a peer (p. 12) in order to set out the self-development of the childencourages instantaneous actionrelates back to the success criteria (p. 13)Allows learners to compare their own ideas of achievement against that of the teacher or peerIndicates to the child where to go for help and what they can do to improve (p. 13)(Black Harrison, 2004)Leakey (2001) carried out a study where she inform on her own experiences with experimenting with sharing learning objectives and success criteria with children of a vagabond of ages and believes it to be a successful AfL strategy because it gives children ownership of their own learning (p. 68). Leakey also suggests that it is only with the insight of what it is that they are trying to achieve can children are able to make connections with any feedback that they subsequently receive.Koegh and Naylor (1996) delivered a rebuke at Manchester Metropolitan University sharing their ideas thatConstructivist views of learning in science suggest that learners can only make sense of new situ ations in damage of their existing understanding. Prior knowledge is used by learners to interpret observations marrow is constructed by individuals in a process of adding to or modifying their existing ideas.(Keogh Naylor, 1996)and cited the working of others who share the same view (Driver (1983) Osbourne Freyberg (1985) and Scott (1987)).The inferences behind the constructivist theory relating to education are that the teacher is aimd to find out childrens ideas (elicitation) in order to cut them into consideration when planning their teaching to provide teaching and learning experiences which leave alone develop the childrens ideas and challenge their understanding of a specific area. Within science education, there has been a great deal of research into the benefits of using constructivism as a method of AfL with many teachers appreciating the concept of constructivism within the science classroom. Curriculum resources have been create along with specific research inclu ding the (Science Processes and Concept geographic expedition (SPACE) project (1990-92) and as a result research by Nuffield Primary Science who have used this research to develop many pedagogical aids and teaching resources for teachers within the classroom.However, Bentley and Watts (1991) discussed their concerns that there is a distinction betwixt what they define as the strong characteristics of theoretical constructivism and the ability of teachers to apply it to their teaching resulting in a weak version of constructivism that is delivered in the classroom. Leeds (1992) describes that although teachers find it easier to plan activities following an elicitation session where learners preconceived ideas have been identified, the matter-of-factities of tailoring an inclusive education where all childrens learning issues relating to a specific area is more or less impossible when faced with a class of 30 differing ideas. In similitude to the difference between the amount of research into the benefits of a constructivist approach to teaching and the teaching resources and pedagogical guidance operational, Claxton (1986) described the mountain of examples of childrens alternative conceptions (p. 126) which were available at that time and noted that the guidance for teachers on how to restructure the learners ideas was less prominent in the literature. More recent research also focuses more closely on the elicitation of ideas, but much less is write about methods and techniques which allow teachers to restructure these ideas as a whole class exercise. The aim of the SPACE project was tostart where the children are, building on the ideas children tote up with them to lessons and helping them to develop their understanding of scientific concepts.(Nuffield Foundation)Nuffield Primary Science developed a series of books covering the Science Curriculum, which included many misconceptions of children in each area along with examples of concept cartoons and e xamples of activities that could be used in order to restructure the highlighted misconceptions and develop childrens thinking, in order to aid teachers within the classroom to enable children to test out their own ideas through practical hands-on activities and investigations. These publications are now unfortunately out of print however the reports relating to the SPACE project continue to be available from the Nuffield website (Nuffield Primary Science).The use of specific strategies such as concept cartoons (Keogh Naylor, 2000) and mind mapping (Stow, 1997) introduce researched methods of elicitation within the science classroom and offer an effective way of concluding any project where children can revisit the original idea and discuss how and why they have developed throughout the study period.However, teachers require the flexibility and space within the curriculum in order to effectively put these theories into practice in order that the benefits can be maximised. AfL wil ling only be successful when both teachers and children are committed to its process and where both use it as a method for developing current learning and developing and expanding their skills and knowledge base. This idea is supported by the followingAssessment for learning only works if pupils and teachers take action on learning needs.(Ward, Roden, Hewlett, Foreman, 2005)Black and William best summarise the use of AfL within the classroom as followsThere is a body of firm evidence that formative assessment is an essential feature of classroom work and that development of it can raise standards. We know of no other way of raising standards for which such a strong prima facie case can be made on the basis of evidence of such large learning gains.(Black William, 1998)